TOXICS
INFORMATION PROJECT (TIP)
Tel. 401-351-9193, E-Mail: TIP@toxicsinfo.org
Website:
www.toxicsinfo.org
(Sharing
Information on Toxics in Everyday Life
&
Providing Healthier Alternatives)
Children’s Health Environmental
Coalition (CHEC)
Chlorine
Common Names: chloramine,
sodium hypochlorite, bleach, hydrochloric acid, trihalomethanes,
disinfection byproducts
Chlorine is a highly corrosive
gas with a pungent odor that is derived from natural sources such as salt
(sodium chloride) and produced in mass quantities for industrial use. Chlorine is a building block for PVC plastics
(vinyl) and for numerous chemicals, including pesticides, refrigerants, anti-knock
compounds, and antifreeze. Dissolved in
liquid to form sodium hypochlorite, or bleach, it is widely used as a
disinfectant, in bleaching, and to purify public water supplies. Another form, hydrochloric acid, may be used
in some toilet bowl cleaners.
Household bleach is a weak
sodium hypochlorite solution. Household
bleach is the most common cleaner accidentally swallowed by children. Children can also be exposed to dangerous
gases when cleaners containing bleach are mixed with other cleaning agents,
such as ammonia.
Concern about chlorine exposure
also arises from its ability to form more toxic byproducts. Chlorine reacts with organic matter in
drinking water to produce trihalomethanes, which may
cause cancer and possibly developmental effects. A recent study links children's exposure to
one byproduct, nitrogen trichloride, in chlorinated
indoor pools to asthma. Chlorine bleaching of paper and the manufacture and incineration of
PVC plastic results in the formation of highly toxic dioxins and furans.
Significant Statistics:
In 2000, poison control centers in the
From:
Litovitz. "2000 AAPCC Annual
Report." American Journal of Emergency Medicine,
Vol. 19, No.5 (September 2001), pg. 375.
The total inhalation exposure of chlorine and chlorine byproducts due
to showering, dishwashing and water boiling is comparable to that from dietary
exposure.
From:
Lin, T.F., Hoang, S.W. "Inhalation exposure to THMs
from drinking water," Water Supply, Vol. 17, No. 3 (1999), pp. 169-175.
Trihalomethanes, toxic byproducts of chlorine disinfection of water
supplies, may cause more than 10,000 cases of bladder and rectal cancer each
year, according to an analysis of more than a dozen peer-reviewed, published,
epidemiological studies.
From:
Morris, R.D., et al. "Chlorination, Chlorination By-Products, and Cancer:
A Meta-Analysis," American Journal of Public Health, Vol. 87, No. 7
(1992), pp. 955-63.
The largest use of
chlorine is as a raw material in the production of PVC plastic
(vinyl).
From:
Chemical Summary for Chlorine.
In 1995, 98% of
From:
Tibbetts, John. "What's in the Water: The
Disinfectant Dilemma," Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 103, No. 1 (January 1995).
http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/1995/103-1/focus1.html
Health Effects
Chlorine bleach can cause severe skin and eye
irritation or chemical burns to broken skin.
Possible slight
increase in the risk of bladder and rectal cancers in long-time users of
chlorinated water supplies.
Inhaled
in high concentrations, can cause respiratory problems including coughing,
choking, chest pain, emphysema, chronic
bronchitis. A recent study links children's
exposure to nitrogen trichloride, a chlorination
byproduct, at indoor swimming pools to an increased risk in developing asthma.
Inhalation
of chlorine gas
can corrode the teeth.
In
laboratory animals, repeated inhalation of chlorine has damaged the liver,
kidney, blood, heart, and immune and respiratory systems.
How Exposures Occur
Cleaning Products
Cleaners containing
bleach could be swallowed by children. Clear products may be
mistaken for water. Children can inhale
toxic chlorine gases if products containing bleach are mixed with ammonia or cleaners containing acids,
such as some toilet bowl and oven cleaners.
Chlorinated
Swimming Pool Treatments Children
can inhale significant amounts of
chlorine and chlorination byproducts at levels potentially damaging to
their lungs from chlorinator tablets in pools, particularly if they frequently
swim in indoor pools, and if high levels of urine or other acidic compounds are
present in water. Exposure to chlorine
from a typical swim is roughly the same as occupational chlorine exposures.
Chloroform, a trihalomethane, is the volatile
byproduct present at highest levels. It
is a carcinogen and developmental toxicant, among other things. Exposure to chloroform from a typical swim is
equivalent to an entire week's exposure from drinking and showering. Exposure is best kept at a minimum.
Drinking
Water Disinfected with Chlorine Children
can ingest small amounts of chlorine and
its byproducts in drinking water that has been treated with chlorine to kill
microbes.
Steam
from Showers and Appliances Children
can inhale chlorine and its byproducts
in steam from showers and baths. These
toxins can also be absorbed through the skin.
Steam from dishwashers using chlorinated water also contains chlorine
and byproducts.
Solutions
How to detect chlorine
Cleaning
products containing
chlorine are sometimes labeled as such, but chlorine can also be
identified by its strong, distinct odor.
How to minimize exposure to chlorine
Avoid cleaning with
chlorine-based products, especially if you or your children have asthma
or chronic lung or heart problems.
If you do use cleaning products that contain chlorine, wear gloves
to avoid direct contact with skin, and provide plenty of ventilation by
opening windows. Keep children out of
the room!
To prevent the creation of toxic chlorine or chloramine gases,
which can damage lungs and cause coughing and choking, never mix
chlorine-containing cleansers with other cleaning products, particularly ones
containing ammonia or other acidic
substances.
Carbon
filters can remove the
chlorine and chlorine disinfection byproducts from water. These filters are available for
showerheads. It is extremely important
to change filters regularly. Otherwise,
the filters will start releasing contaminants back into the water.
To
reduce chlorine and trihalomethanes (THMs) in
drinking water: - Store drinking water in pitchers. About 20% of the THMs
will evaporate from the water. -Drink hot beverages (rather than cold tap
water). The THMs
and chlorine will evaporate. Cooking also helps reduce THMs
intake, but the steam will expose the cook.
(Do not use hot water from the tap as hot water leaches lead from pipes.)
Alternatives
Chlorine-free
cleaning products, disinfectants, and laundry bleaches. Some are made with hydrogen peroxide. Chlorine-free cleaning products are are available at most natural foods stores and by mail
order. See also Antibacterials
and Disinfectants: Safer Way to Keep Germs at Bay.
To
prevent the entry of toxic chlorine byproducts into the environment, avoid
buying and using PVC (vinyl) plastic products and chlorinated pesticides. Choose recycled and unbleached, or
chlorine-free paper products. For more
information, go to the Chlorine Free Products Association website.
http://www.chlorinefreeproducts.org
Install
an ozonator in your swimming pool, hot tub or jacuzzi to reduce the amount of chlorine needed. Many pool supply retail stores have
them.
For More Information
Books, articles, fact sheets and reports
Dickey, Philip. Safer Cleaning
Products.
http://www.watoxics.org/pages/root.aspx?fromMenu=0&pos=3|0|0
Other government agencies
Chlorine Free Products Association,
Greenpeace
206-632-1545
http://www.watoxics.org
Other websites
Pesticide Action Network Pesticide Database
http://www.pesticideinfo.org
Greenpeace USA Toxics Campaign
www.greenpeaceusa.org/toxics/
Environmental Defense Chemical Scorecard
http://www.scorecard.org
Sources
Chemical
Summary for chlorine.
Chemicals
in the Environment: chlorine.
Chlorine Chemical Backgrounder. National
Safety Council.
http://www.crossroads.nsc.org/ChemicalTemplate.cfm?id=91&chempath=chemicals
Chlorine,
CASRN: 7782-50-5 (Human Health Effects). Toxnet
Hazardous Substances Data Bank, National Library of Medicine, February 2002.
http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/
Agent Monograph: Chlorinated
Drinking-Water. World Health Organization, International Agency for Research on
Cancer,
Harte, John, et al. Toxics A to Z: A Guide to Everyday
Pollution Hazards.
Tibbetts, John. "What's in the Water: The Disinfectant
Dilemma." Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol.
103, No. 1 (January 1995).
http://ehpnet1.niehs.nih.gov/docs/1995/103-1/focus1.html
Chlorine. Health Effects Notebook for
Hazardous Air Pollutants.
Morris,
R.D., et al. "Chlorination, Chlorination By-Products, and Cancer: A
Meta-Analysis." American Journal of Public Health,
Vol.87, No.7 (1992), pp.955-63.
Drinking
Water and Health, Volume 7: Disinfectants and Disinfectant By-Products.
Corsi, Richard, et al. "Household Appliances and
Indoor Air Pollution," Environmental Science and Technology, July 1999.
http://www.newswise.com/articles/1999/7/AIR.UTE.html
Rushall, Brent. "Chlorine Toxicity: A Matter That
Should be of Concern to All Swimmers, Coaches, andParents,"
Swimming Science Journal .http://www.rohan.sdsu.edu/dept/coachsci/swimming/chlorine.htm
Jo,
W. "Chloroform in the water and air of Korean indoor swimming pools using
both sodium hypochlorite and ozone for
water disinfection," J Exposure Analysis and Env
Epidemiol., Vol. 4 (1994), 491-502.
Drobnic F, Assumpcio F.
"Assessment of chlorine exposure in
swimmers during training," Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise,
Vol. 28 (1996), 271-274
Lin,
T.F., Hoang, S.W. "Inhalation exposure to THMs
from drinking water," Water Supply, Vol. 17, No. 3 (1999), 169-175.
Batterman, S., Huang, A.T. ,Wang, S., Zhang, L.
"Reduction of Ingestion Exposure to
trihalomethanes Due to Volatilization,"
Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 34, no. 20 (2000), 4418-4424.
For more information, or to share your own concerns, problems,
comments, questions, contact:
Toxics Information Project (TIP), P.O. Box 40572, Providence, RI 02940,
Tel. 401-351-9193, E-Mail: TIP@toxicsinfo.org Website:
www.toxicsinfo.org